Wednesday, April 30, 2008
TFY Chapter 12 Summary
1. Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
2. Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.
3. The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of every day language into verbal equations.
4. Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out out if the argument makes senses.
5. Deductive and inductive reasoning are not isolated pursuits but are mentally interwoven both in major and mundane problem solving.
6. It is possible to infer the rules of valid and invalid reasoning from the study of models.
2. Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.
3. The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of every day language into verbal equations.
4. Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out out if the argument makes senses.
5. Deductive and inductive reasoning are not isolated pursuits but are mentally interwoven both in major and mundane problem solving.
6. It is possible to infer the rules of valid and invalid reasoning from the study of models.
TFY Chapter 11 Summary
1. Inductive reasoning is the process of thinking that you used in describing a fruit, vegetable, or tool when you began by not knowing the identity of the covered object.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
5. A conclusion delivered through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain that the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when is would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical or by extrapolations.
7. The five basic rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on the statistical samplings.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
5. A conclusion delivered through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain that the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when is would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical or by extrapolations.
7. The five basic rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on the statistical samplings.
TFY Chapter 10 Summary
1. Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objects information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person a tradition or conventional wisdom.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listing and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creats a false replica then destroys the replica.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objects information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person a tradition or conventional wisdom.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listing and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creats a false replica then destroys the replica.
TFY Chapter 9 Summary
1. The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, in)teraction with questions, and evaluation.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What Viewpoint in the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are arguments strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context.
6. Arguments state and deafen a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as through they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What Viewpoint in the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are arguments strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context.
6. Arguments state and deafen a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as through they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
Tuesday, April 29, 2008
TFY Chapter 8 Summary
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations-can either be consciously or unconsciously assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shape their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the internet a far wider range of view points is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious groups, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions made by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations-can either be consciously or unconsciously assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shape their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the internet a far wider range of view points is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious groups, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions made by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
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