Wednesday, April 30, 2008
TFY Chapter 12 Summary
1. Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
2. Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.
3. The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of every day language into verbal equations.
4. Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out out if the argument makes senses.
5. Deductive and inductive reasoning are not isolated pursuits but are mentally interwoven both in major and mundane problem solving.
6. It is possible to infer the rules of valid and invalid reasoning from the study of models.
2. Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.
3. The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of every day language into verbal equations.
4. Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out out if the argument makes senses.
5. Deductive and inductive reasoning are not isolated pursuits but are mentally interwoven both in major and mundane problem solving.
6. It is possible to infer the rules of valid and invalid reasoning from the study of models.
TFY Chapter 11 Summary
1. Inductive reasoning is the process of thinking that you used in describing a fruit, vegetable, or tool when you began by not knowing the identity of the covered object.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
5. A conclusion delivered through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain that the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when is would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical or by extrapolations.
7. The five basic rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on the statistical samplings.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
5. A conclusion delivered through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain that the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when is would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical or by extrapolations.
7. The five basic rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on the statistical samplings.
TFY Chapter 10 Summary
1. Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objects information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person a tradition or conventional wisdom.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listing and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creats a false replica then destroys the replica.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objects information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person a tradition or conventional wisdom.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listing and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creats a false replica then destroys the replica.
TFY Chapter 9 Summary
1. The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, in)teraction with questions, and evaluation.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What Viewpoint in the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are arguments strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context.
6. Arguments state and deafen a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as through they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What Viewpoint in the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are arguments strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context.
6. Arguments state and deafen a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as through they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
Tuesday, April 29, 2008
TFY Chapter 8 Summary
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations-can either be consciously or unconsciously assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shape their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the internet a far wider range of view points is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious groups, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions made by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations-can either be consciously or unconsciously assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shape their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the internet a far wider range of view points is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious groups, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions made by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
Monday, March 17, 2008
TFY Chapter 7 Summary
1. Evaluations make judgments about worth on the basis of standards that may be conscious or unconscious.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instead of last may be problematical when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feelings and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluations since the affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we recognize how those connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not choose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the influence of propaganda.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instead of last may be problematical when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feelings and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluations since the affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we recognize how those connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not choose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the influence of propaganda.
TFY Chapter 6 Summary
1. Although the word opinion is a common one, it is just as commonly misunderstood, since the same word covers so many varieties of thoughts, ranging from expert judgments to expressions of sentiment or personal taste.
2. Opinions can be well substantiated or not. They can be based either on reasons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsible opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based on solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is based on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not that same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same safeguards as public elections.
7. Opinions should not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of an opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
2. Opinions can be well substantiated or not. They can be based either on reasons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsible opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based on solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is based on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not that same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same safeguards as public elections.
7. Opinions should not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of an opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
TFY Chapter 5 Summary
1. An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as beging true, something we do not check out carefully. Often we do, not recognize that we have made an assumption until it causes a problem for us.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. we need to recognize the difference.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that generally influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously influence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. this can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new understanding though the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she dose not buy the assumptions that restrain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are with confronted with a problem to solve.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. we need to recognize the difference.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that generally influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously influence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. this can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new understanding though the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she dose not buy the assumptions that restrain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are with confronted with a problem to solve.
Tuesday, February 19, 2008
TFY Chapter 4
1. You see a little girl pushing an elderly woman being push down Main Street in a large baby carriage.
Inference- You could see a little girl pushing an elderly woman but never see the girl pushing a woman in a carriage down the street.
2. Your best friend leaves you a note saying she has joined the Marines.
Inference- Perhaps your best friend needs a change from the life she is leading.
3. You have received no mail for the past two weeks.
Inference- Perhaps you moved to a different location and forgot to change your address.
4. A recent study found that men between fifty and seventy-nine years old married to woman one to twenty-four years younger tended to live longer or had a mortality rat 13 percent below the norm.
Inference- Maybe a woman help man by dieting and exercising.
5. The same study found men married to older women died sooner or had death rate that was 20 percent higher than the norm.
Inference- Men tend to eat a lot of unhealthy foods.
6. To state that "annual beef consumption in the U.S. is 96.8 pounds per capita in 1988, as compared to 11 pounds in China" is to make a generalization without facts.
False
7. To state the obvious is to opposed to what is thought or interpreted about what is seen.
True
8. Good thinking dose not continue to build inferences on top of inferences but stops whenever possible to cheek these inferences against the original facts or to find new ones.
True
9. One should always avoid making inferences in every kind of writing.
False
10. To state that the U.S. has that highest per capita use of motor vehicles in the world is to make a generalization without offering supporting facts.
True
Inference- You could see a little girl pushing an elderly woman but never see the girl pushing a woman in a carriage down the street.
2. Your best friend leaves you a note saying she has joined the Marines.
Inference- Perhaps your best friend needs a change from the life she is leading.
3. You have received no mail for the past two weeks.
Inference- Perhaps you moved to a different location and forgot to change your address.
4. A recent study found that men between fifty and seventy-nine years old married to woman one to twenty-four years younger tended to live longer or had a mortality rat 13 percent below the norm.
Inference- Maybe a woman help man by dieting and exercising.
5. The same study found men married to older women died sooner or had death rate that was 20 percent higher than the norm.
Inference- Men tend to eat a lot of unhealthy foods.
6. To state that "annual beef consumption in the U.S. is 96.8 pounds per capita in 1988, as compared to 11 pounds in China" is to make a generalization without facts.
False
7. To state the obvious is to opposed to what is thought or interpreted about what is seen.
True
8. Good thinking dose not continue to build inferences on top of inferences but stops whenever possible to cheek these inferences against the original facts or to find new ones.
True
9. One should always avoid making inferences in every kind of writing.
False
10. To state that the U.S. has that highest per capita use of motor vehicles in the world is to make a generalization without offering supporting facts.
True
Monday, February 18, 2008
TFY Chapter 3
1. Some facts can be determined by measurements.
True
2. Some facts can be confirmed by the senses, others by records.
False
3. The most reliable facts are those that have been repeatedly confirmed by test over time.
True
4. Facts often consist of obvious details that are seen but not consciously recognized.
True
5. Sometimes what we clam to be fact are untrue because the human perceptions used to determine them are limited and fallible.
True
6. A person educated in critical thinking qualifies statements to reflect probabilities such as it appears that...
True
7. Often it is hard to make a decision because we do not have enough facts.
True
8. The study of many subjects consists of memorizing facts.
True
9. All newspapers can be depended upon as reliable sources of facts about world events.
False
10. An atmosphere that permits disagreements about widely accepted perceptions and belief helps critical thinking to flourish.
True
True
2. Some facts can be confirmed by the senses, others by records.
False
3. The most reliable facts are those that have been repeatedly confirmed by test over time.
True
4. Facts often consist of obvious details that are seen but not consciously recognized.
True
5. Sometimes what we clam to be fact are untrue because the human perceptions used to determine them are limited and fallible.
True
6. A person educated in critical thinking qualifies statements to reflect probabilities such as it appears that...
True
7. Often it is hard to make a decision because we do not have enough facts.
True
8. The study of many subjects consists of memorizing facts.
True
9. All newspapers can be depended upon as reliable sources of facts about world events.
False
10. An atmosphere that permits disagreements about widely accepted perceptions and belief helps critical thinking to flourish.
True
Sunday, February 17, 2008
TFY Chapter 2
1. Dictionaries are like phone books; basically, they all offer the same information. False
2. If a dictionary is named Webster's, that means it is one of the best. False
3. Exports who decide how we should speak English write dictionaries. False
4. Small, pocket dictionaries are the best kind to use for in-depth word study because they eliminate unnecessary, confusing information and make understanding easier. False
5. Since a dictionary can confuse us with so many definitions for any single word, it is better to try to figure out a word's meaning from its context or are someone else. False
6. Dictionaries are like cookbooks; a family needs to buy only one for the family's lifetime. False
7. Dictionaries gives us information about spelling and definitions, but that is about all they offer. False
2. If a dictionary is named Webster's, that means it is one of the best. False
3. Exports who decide how we should speak English write dictionaries. False
4. Small, pocket dictionaries are the best kind to use for in-depth word study because they eliminate unnecessary, confusing information and make understanding easier. False
5. Since a dictionary can confuse us with so many definitions for any single word, it is better to try to figure out a word's meaning from its context or are someone else. False
6. Dictionaries are like cookbooks; a family needs to buy only one for the family's lifetime. False
7. Dictionaries gives us information about spelling and definitions, but that is about all they offer. False
TFY Chapter 1
1. Observation skills are learned mainly through book learning. Support for Answers. On the contrary, observation is learned from participation, which is more active and spontaneous than reading. Samuel Scudder learned observing through the active coaching of his teacher Agassiz as well as from his own efforts, curiosity, and persistence in studying his fish.
False
2. The standard academic study of all the physical sciences requires observation skills, whether in the field or laboratory.
True
3. In thinking, the correctness of our conclusions usually depends on the clarity of our perceptions.
True
4. Observation skills can be extended to observing how you observe.
True
5. An insight is an experience of understanding that can occur spontaneously after we observe something intently for a while. One illustration of this experience is the story of Archimedes, who, while in his bath, discovered the means of measuring the value of an irregular solid by the displacement of water.
True
6. Agassiz was simply too busy to give his student all the assistance he needed.
False
7. Perception and sensation are synonyms.
False
8. It is difficult to feel sensation and to think at the same time. If we want to feel whether a pair of new shoes fits properly, we have to pay attention.
True
9. Assimilation, according to Piaget, is an experience of easily understanding something that readily fits into our preexisting schemes or world view.
True
10. The word thinking, according to the dictionary, has only one meaning.
False
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